Conversely, weak feet have been shown to be a factor in fall risk 21. Increasing intrinsic foot muscle strength has been correlated positively with balance and stability, and may reduce fall risk in older people 20. Therefore, strong intrinsic foot muscles may improve the longitudinal arch deforming mechanism, beneficial to an efficient gait and also (or even predominantly) to stiffen the distal foot joints during push-off 19. Studies have shown that intrinsic foot muscles (such as the abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis, and quadratus plantae 12, 15) actively influence longitudinal arch stiffness and elastic recoil 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, in addition to passive contributions by the plantar aponeurosis. Humans also have considerable foot musculature which aids control the deformation of the foot’s arches 12, 13, helps stabilise the foot and improves balance during stance phase 14. It is also considered a key component of the windlass mechanism 8 which contributes to the foot’s ability to regulate stiffness 9, 10 but muscle action also contributes especially during push-off 11. The springy plantar aponeurosis present in modern day humans ( Homo sapiens) reduces the cost of transport by cyclically storing and releasing energy during locomotion 6, 7. These adaptations help reduce midfoot motion, the latter shown as a pronounced “midtarsal break” in apes 3, 4 but present to some degree in humans 5. Well-defined longitudinal arches had evolved by around 2 million years ago, found in early Homo erectus 2. The human foot has evolved a set of unique anatomical adaptations to support effective bipedal locomotion. Forces produced by the body are transmitted to the ground via the foot to generate forward propulsion in addition to supporting body weight 1. The foot is usually the body’s only physical contact with the ground. The experienced group had similar foot strength as the post intervention group, suggesting that six months of regular minimal footwear use is sufficient to gain full strength, which may aid healthy balance and gait. This study shows that foot strength increases by, on average, 57.4% (p < 0.001) after six months of daily activity in minimal footwear. An additional group was investigated to add further insight on the long-term effects of footwear, consisting of Western adults with an average 2.5 years of experience in minimal footwear (the “experienced” group). Foot strength, i.e., maximum isometric plantarflexion strength at the metatarsophalangeal joints, and foot biometrics were measured before and after the intervention. Western adults wore minimal footwear for a six-month period (the “intervention” group). In this study we explore the hypothesis that normal daily activity in minimal footwear, which provides little or no support, increases foot muscle strength. Intrinsic foot muscles regulate arch deformation, making them important for foot function. The human foot is uniquely adapted to bipedal locomotion and has a deformable arch of variable stiffness.
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